जीवित पुत्रिका पूजा -2

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Chaupal: आस्था बनाम आधुनिकता

Chaupal: आस्था बनाम आधुनिकता: छठ पर्व -एक ऐसा त्यौहार है जिसमे आस्था का महत्व तो है ही लेकिन परिवार को एक कड़ी के रूप में जोड़े रखने का कार्य करता था और है। हालाँकि वक्त ...

Introduction to AI

1.1.1 Definition of AI
What is AI ?
Artificial Intelligence is concerned with the design of intelligence in an artificial device.
The term was coined by McCarthy in 1956.

There are two ideas in the definition.
1.  Intelligence 
2.  artificial device 
What is intelligence?

–  Is it that which characterize humans? Or is there an absolute standard of judgement? –  Accordingly there are two possibilities:  –  A system with intelligence is expected to behave as intelligently as a human
–  A system with intelligence is expected to behave in the best possible manner
–  Secondly what type of behavior are we talking about? 
–  Are we looking at the thought process or reasoning ability of the system? –  Or are we only interested in the final manifestations of the system in terms of
its actions?

Given this scenario different interpretations  have been used by different researchers as
defining the scope and view of Artificial Intelligence.
1.  One view is that artificial intelligence  is about designing systems that are as
intelligent as humans.
 
This view involves trying to understand  human thought and an effort to build
machines that emulate the human thought  process. This view is the cognitive
science approach to AI.

2.  The second approach is best embodied by the concept of  the Turing Test. 
Turing held that in future computers  can be programmed to acquire abilities
rivaling human intelligence. As part of his argument Turing put forward the idea
of an 'imitation game', in which a  human being and a computer would be
interrogated under conditions where the  interrogator would not know which was
which, the communication being entirely by textual messages. Turing argued that
if the interrogator could not distinguish them by questioning, then it would be
unreasonable not to call the computer intelligent. Turing's 'imitation game' is now
usually called 'the Turing test' for intelligence.
 


 
Turing Test
Consider the following setting. There are two rooms, A and B. One of the rooms
contains a computer. The other contains  a human. The interrogator is outside and
does not know which one is a computer. He can ask questions through a teletype and
receives answers from both A and B. The interrogator needs to identify whether A or
B are humans. To pass the Turing test, the machine has to fool the interrogator into
believing that it is human. For more details on the Turing test visit the site
 http://cogsci.ucsd.edu/~asaygin/tt/ttest.html

3.  Logic and laws of thought deals with studies of ideal or rational thought process
and inference. The emphasis in this case is on the inferencing mechanism, and its
properties. That is how the system arrives at a conclusion, or the reasoning behind
its selection of actions is very important in this point of view. The soundness and
completeness of the inference mechanisms are important here.

4.  The fourth view of AI is that it is the study of rational agents. This view deals
with building machines that act rationally. The focus is on how the system acts
and performs, and not so much on the reasoning process. A rational agent is one
that acts rationally, that is, is in the best possible manner. 

1.1.2 Typical AI problems
While studying the typical range of tasks that we might expect an “intelligent entity” to
perform, we need to consider both “common-place” tasks as well as expert tasks.
Examples of common-place tasks include

– Recognizing people, objects.
– Communicating (through natural language).
– Navigating around obstacles on the streets

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These tasks are done matter of factly and routinely by people and some other animals. 

Expert tasks include:
•  Medical diagnosis.
•  Mathematical problem solving
•  Playing games like chess

These tasks cannot be done by all people, and can only be performed by skilled
specialists.

Now, which of these tasks are easy and which ones are hard? Clearly tasks of the first
type are easy for humans to perform, and almost all are able to master them. The second
range of tasks requires skill  development and/or intelligence and only some specialists
can perform them well. However, when we  look at what computer systems have been
able to achieve to date, we see that their achievements include performing sophisticated
tasks like medical diagnosis, performing symbolic integration, proving theorems and
playing chess.

On the other hand it has proved to be very hard to make computer systems perform many
routine tasks that all humans and a lot of animals can do. Examples of such tasks include
navigating our way without running into things, catching prey and avoiding predators.
Humans and animals are also capable of interpreting complex sensory information. We
are able to recognize objects and people from the visual image that we receive. We are
also able to perform complex social functions.
 Intelligent behaviour
This discussion brings us back to the question of what constitutes intelligent behaviour.
Some of these tasks and applications are:
ƒ  Perception involving image recognition and computer vision
ƒ  Reasoning
ƒ  Learning
ƒ  Understanding language involving natural language processing, speech processing
ƒ  Solving problems
ƒ  Robotics
 1.1.3 Practical Impact of AI
AI components are embedded in numerous devices e.g. in copy machines for automatic
correction of operation for copy quality improvement. AI systems are in everyday use for
identifying credit card fraud, for advising doctors, for recognizing speech and in helping
complex planning tasks. Then there are intelligent tutoring systems that provide students
with personalized attention


Thus AI has increased understanding of the nature of intelligence and found many
applications. It has helped in the understanding of human reasoning, and of the nature of
intelligence. It has also helped us understand the complexity of modeling human
reasoning.

1.1.4 Approaches to AI
Strong AI aims to build machines that can  truly reason and solve problems. These
machines should be self aware and their  overall intellectual ability needs to be
indistinguishable from that of a human being. Excessive optimism in the 1950s and 1960s
concerning strong AI has given way to an appreciation of the extreme difficulty of the
problem. Strong AI maintains that suitably programmed machines are capable of
cognitive mental states.

Weak AI: deals with the creation of some form of computer-based artificial intelligence
that cannot truly reason and solve problems, but can act as if it were intelligent. Weak AI
holds that suitably programmed machines can simulate human cognition.

Applied AI:  aims to produce commercially viable "smart" systems such as, for example,
a security system that is able to recognise the faces of people who are permitted to enter a
particular building. Applied AI has already enjoyed considerable success.

Cognitive AI: computers are used to test theories about how the human mind works--for
example, theories about how we recognise faces and other objects, or about how we solve
abstract problems.

1.1.5 Limits of AI Today
Today’s successful AI systems operate in well-defined domains and employ narrow,
specialized knowledge. Common sense knowledge is needed to function in complex,
open-ended worlds. Such a system also  needs to understand unconstrained natural
language. However these capabilities are not  yet fully present in  today’s intelligent
systems.

What can AI systems do

Today’s AI systems have been able to achieve limited success in some of these tasks.
• In Computer vision, the systems are capable of face recognition
• In Robotics, we have been able to make vehicles that are mostly autonomous.
• In Natural language processing, we have systems that are  capable of simple machine
translation.
• Today’s Expert systems can carry out medical diagnosis in a narrow domain
• Speech understanding systems are capable of recognizing several thousand words
continuous speech
• Planning and scheduling systems had been  employed in scheduling experiments with


the Hubble Telescope.
• The Learning systems are capable of doing text categorization into about a 1000 topics
• In Games, AI systems can play at the  Grand Master level in chess (world champion),
checkers, etc.

What can AI systems NOT do yet?
• Understand natural language robustly (e.g., read and understand articles in a
newspaper)
• Surf the web
• Interpret an arbitrary visual scene
• Learn a natural language
• Construct plans in dynamic real-time domains
• Exhibit true autonomy and intelligence

1.2 AI History
Intellectual roots of AI date  back to the early studies of the nature of knowledge and
reasoning. The dream of making a computer imitate humans also has a very early history.

The concept of intelligent machines is found in Greek mythology. There is a story in the
8th century A.D about Pygmalion Olio, the legendary king of Cyprus. He fell in love with
an ivory statue he made to represent his  ideal woman.  The king prayed to the goddess
Aphrodite, and the goddess miraculously brought the statue to life. Other myths involve
human-like artifacts. As a present from Zeus to Europa, Hephaestus created Talos, a huge
robot. Talos was made of bronze and his duty was to patrol the beaches of Crete. 

Aristotle (384-322 BC) developed  an informal system of syllogistic logic, which is the
basis of the first formal deductive reasoning system.

Early in the 17th century, Descartes proposed that  bodies of animals are nothing more
than complex machines.

Pascal in 1642 made the first mechanical digital calculating machine.

In the 19th century, George Boole developed a binary algebra representing (some) "laws
of thought."

Charles Babbage & Ada Byron worked on programmable mechanical calculating
machines.

In the late 19th century and early 20th century, mathematical philosophers like Gottlob
Frege, Bertram Russell, Alfred North Whitehead, and Kurt Gödel built on Boole's initial
logic concepts to develop mathematical representations of logic problems. 

The advent of electronic computers provided  a revolutionary advance in the ability to
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study intelligence.

In 1943 McCulloch & Pitts developed a Boolean circuit model of brain. They wrote the
paper “A Logical Calculus of Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity”, which explained
how it is possible for neural networks to compute. 

Marvin Minsky and Dean Edmonds built the SNARC in 1951, which is the first
randomly wired neural network learning machine (SNARC stands for Stochastic Neural-Analog Reinforcement Computer).It was a neural network computer that used 3000
vacuum tubes and a network with 40 neurons.

In 1950 Turing wrote an article on “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” which
articulated a complete vision of AI. For more on Alan Turing see the site
http://www.turing.org.uk/turing/ 

Turing’s paper talked of many things, of solving problems by searching through the space
of possible solutions, guided by heuristics.  He illustrated his ideas on machine
intelligence by reference to chess. He even propounded the possibility of letting the
machine alter its own instructions so that machines can learn  from experience.

In 1956 a famous conference took place in Dartmouth. The conference brought together
the founding fathers of artificial  intelligence for the first time. In this meeting the term
“Artificial Intelligence” was adopted.

Between 1952 and 1956, Samuel had developed  several programs for playing checkers.
In 1956, Newell & Simon’s Logic Theorist was published. It is considered by many to be
the first AI program. In 1959, Gelernter developed a Geometry Engine. In 1961 James
Slagle (PhD dissertation, MIT) wrote a symbolic integration program, SAINT. It was
written in LISP and solved calculus problems  at the college freshman level. In 1963,
Thomas Evan's program Analogy was developed which could solve IQ test type 
analogy problems.

In 1963, Edward A. Feigenbaum & Julian Feldman published Computers and Thought,
the first collection of articles about  artificial intelligence.

In 1965, J. Allen Robinson invented a  mechanical proof procedure, the  Resolution
Method, which allowed programs to work efficiently with formal logic as a
representation language. In 1967, the Dendral program (Feigenbaum, Lederberg,
Buchanan, Sutherland at Stanford) was demonstrated which could  interpret mass spectra
on organic chemical compounds. This was the first successful knowledge-based program
for scientific reasoning. In 1969 the SRI robot, Shakey, demonstrated combining
locomotion, perception and problem solving.

The years from 1969 to 1979 marked the early development of knowledge-based systems
In 1974: MYCIN demonstrated the power of rule-based systems for knowledge
representation and inference in medical diagnosis and therapy. Knowledge representation
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schemes were developed. These included frames developed by Minski. Logic based
languages like Prolog and Planner were developed.

In the 1980s, Lisp Machines developed and marketed. 
Around 1985, neural networks return to popularity
In 1988, there was a resurgence of probabilistic and decision-theoretic methods 

The early AI systems used general systems, little knowledge. AI researchers realized that
specialized knowledge is required for rich tasks to focus reasoning.

The 1990's saw  major advances in all areas of AI including the following:
•  machine learning, data mining
•  intelligent tutoring, 
•  case-based reasoning, 
•  multi-agent planning, scheduling, 
•  uncertain reasoning, 
•  natural language understanding and translation,
•  vision, virtual reality, games, and other topics.

Rod Brooks' COG Project at MIT, with numerous collaborators, made significant
progress in building a humanoid robot

The first official Robo-Cup soccer match featuring table-top matches with 40 teams of
interacting robots was held in 1997. For details, see the site
http://murray.newcastle.edu.au/users/students/2002/c3012299/bg.html

In the late 90s,  Web crawlers and other AI-based information extraction programs
become essential in widespread use of the world-wide-web.

Interactive robot pets ("smart toys") become commercially available, realizing the vision
of the 18th century novelty toy makers.

In 2000, the Nomad robot explores remote regions of Antarctica looking for meteorite
samples.
We will now look at a few famous AI system that has been developed over the years.
1. ALVINN:
Autonomous Land Vehicle In a Neural Network
In 1989, Dean Pomerleau at CMU created ALVINN. This is a system which learns to
control vehicles by watching a person drive. It contains a neural network whose input is a
30x32 unit two dimensional camera image. The  output layer is a representation of the
direction the vehicle should travel.
The system drove a car from the East Coast of USA to the west coast, a total of about
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2850 miles. Out of this about 50 miles were driven by a human, and the rest solely by the
system.

2. Deep BlueIn 1997, the Deep Blue chess program created by IBM, beat the current world chess
champion, Gary Kasparov.

3. Machine translation

A system capable of translations between people speaking different languages will be a
remarkable achievement of enormous economic and cultural benefit. Machine translation
is one of the important fields of endeavour in AI. While some translating systems have
been developed, there is a lot of scope for improvement in translation quality.

4. Autonomous agents
In space exploration, robotic space probes autonomously monitor their surroundings,
make decisions and act to achieve their goals. 
NASA's Mars rovers successfully completed their primary three-month missions in April,
2004. The Spirit rover had been exploring a range of Martian hills that took two months
to reach. It is finding curiously eroded rocks that may be new pieces to the puzzle of the
region's past. Spirit's twin, Opportunity, had been examining exposed rock layers inside a 
crater.

5. Internet agents
The explosive growth of the internet has also led to growing interest in internet agents to
monitor users' tasks, seek needed information, and to learn which  information is most
useful

For more information the reader may consult AI in the news:
http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/html/current.html


 

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